A Journey Through Time
From ancient civilizations to the present day, explore the rich and complex history of Indigenous peoples across North America.
Historical Context
This timeline presents key events from Indigenous perspectives. Many dates represent moments of trauma as well as triumph. We honor the resilience of Native peoples throughout all periods of history.
Ancestral Puebloans Flourish
The ancestors of modern Pueblo peoples begin building sophisticated cliff dwellings and developing advanced agricultural techniques in the Four Corners region.
Hopi Villages Established
The Hopi people establish permanent villages on the mesas of northern Arizona, beginning over 1,500 years of continuous occupation.
Iroquois Confederacy Founded
The Great Law of Peace unites the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca nations into the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, one of the world's oldest democracies.
European Contact Begins
Christopher Columbus arrives in the Caribbean, marking the beginning of sustained European contact with Indigenous peoples of the Americas.
Spanish Reach the Southwest
Francisco Vázquez de Coronado leads an expedition into the Southwest, making first European contact with Pueblo, Hopi, and Zuni peoples.
Wampanoag-Plymouth Alliance
Ousamequin (Massasoit) and Wampanoag leaders forge a defense alliance with the Plymouth colony and share a harvest feast that later becomes mythologized.
King Philip's War
A Wampanoag-led coalition resists New England expansion, resulting in catastrophic losses for Indigenous peoples and massive land dispossession.
Pueblo Revolt
Under the leadership of Popé, Pueblo peoples unite to drive Spanish colonizers from New Mexico, achieving independence for 12 years.
Tuscarora Join Iroquois
The Tuscarora nation joins the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, becoming the sixth nation after being displaced from their Carolina homelands.
Walking Purchase
A disputed land deal in Pennsylvania vastly expands colonial claims and forces Lenape communities to leave much of Lenapehoking.
Cherokee Syllabary Created
Sequoyah completes the Cherokee syllabary, making Cherokee the first Native American language with a writing system developed independently.
First Trail of Tears
The Choctaw Nation becomes the first to be forcibly relocated, enduring a brutal journey that would later be called the Trail of Tears.
Treaty of Chicago
Potawatomi leaders sign the Treaty of Chicago, ceding most remaining Great Lakes homelands and setting stage for removal west.
Seminole Wars Begin
Osceola leads Seminole resistance against forced removal, beginning the Second Seminole War—the longest and costliest Indian war in U.S. history.
Cherokee Trail of Tears
Over 16,000 Cherokee are forced to march from their homelands to Oklahoma. An estimated 4,000 die during the journey.
Potawatomi Trail of Death
More than 850 Potawatomi are forcibly marched from Indiana to Kansas; over 40 people die on the 660-mile journey.
Treaty of Nation Ford
The Catawba sign the Treaty of Nation Ford, ceding most of their South Carolina land base under pressure from settlers.
Blackfeet Treaty Signed
The Lame Bull Treaty establishes a large reservation for the Blackfeet Confederacy, though it would later be significantly reduced.
Apache Wars Intensify
Cochise leads Apache resistance against U.S. expansion after being falsely accused of kidnapping, beginning decades of conflict.
Navajo Long Walk
The U.S. Army forces 8,000 Navajo to march 300 miles to Bosque Redondo in New Mexico, where many perish from disease and starvation.
Sand Creek Massacre
Colorado militia attack a peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho camp at Sand Creek, killing over 200 people and shocking the Plains.
Treaty of Fort Laramie
The treaty establishes the Great Sioux Reservation, including the Black Hills, and recognizes Sioux sovereignty. It would later be violated.
Navajo Return Home
The Treaty of Bosque Redondo allows the Navajo to return to their homeland, establishing the Navajo reservation.
Red River War
U.S. forces wage campaigns against Comanche, Kiowa, and Southern Cheyenne bands, ending much of the Southern Plains resistance.
Battle of Little Bighorn
Lakota and Cheyenne warriors, led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, defeat Lt. Col. George Custer's 7th Cavalry in Montana.
Nez Perce War Flight
Chief Joseph and Nez Perce families undertake a 1,170-mile fighting retreat toward Canada before surrendering near the Bear Paw Mountains.
Geronimo Surrenders
After decades of resistance, Apache leader Geronimo surrenders to U.S. forces, marking the end of the Indian Wars in the Southwest.
Wounded Knee Massacre
U.S. soldiers kill over 250 Lakota men, women, and children at Wounded Knee Creek, marking a tragic end to the Indian Wars.
Annette Islands Reserve Established
The U.S. sets aside the Annette Islands Reserve in Southeast Alaska for the Tsimshian community of Metlakatla.
Choctaw Code Talkers
Choctaw soldiers use their language to transmit coded messages in World War I, pioneering the Code Talker tradition.
Osage Reign of Terror
A series of murders targeting Osage citizens for oil headrights prompts federal investigations and reforms in guardianship laws.
Navajo Nation Council
The Navajo Nation establishes a formal tribal council, creating a modern system of self-governance.
Indian Citizenship Act
Congress grants U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans born in the United States, though many states continue to deny voting rights.
Lumbee Act
Congress acknowledges the Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina but withholds the full services and benefits granted to other federally recognized nations.
Seminole Federal Recognition
The Seminole Tribe of Florida receives federal recognition, affirming their status as 'The Unconquered' people.
American Indian Movement
AIM is founded in Minneapolis by Ojibwe activists, sparking a new era of Native American advocacy and rights activism.
Boldt Decision
U.S. v. Washington affirms Coast Salish treaty fishing rights, allocating half of harvestable fish to treaty tribes and recognizing co-management.
Hoopa-Yurok Settlement Act
Federal legislation clarifies reservation boundaries and land ownership for the Hoopa Valley and Yurok Tribes along the Trinity and Klamath Rivers.
ANILCA Protects Subsistence
The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act recognizes rural subsistence priorities, supporting Inupiat and Yup'ik lifeways across Alaska.
Treaty Rights Affirmed
The U.S. Supreme Court upholds Ojibwe treaty rights to hunt, fish, and gather on ceded lands.